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<title>Template metaprogramming</title>

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Template metaprogramming

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Template metaprogramming (TMP) is a <a href="Metaprogramming" title="Metaprogramming">metaprogramming</a> technique in which <a href="Generic_programming" title="Generic programming">templates</a> are used by a <a href="Compiler" title="Compiler">compiler</a> to generate temporary <a href="Source_code" title="Source code">source code</a>, which is merged by the compiler with the rest of the source code and then compiled. The output of these templates can include <a href="Compile_time" title="Compile time">compile-time</a> <a href="Constant_(programming)" class="mw-redirect" title="Constant (programming)">constants</a>, <a href="Data_structure" title="Data structure">data structures</a>, and complete <a href="Function_(computer_science)" class="mw-redirect" title="Function (computer science)">functions</a>. The use of templates can be thought of as <a href="Compile-time_function_execution" title="Compile-time function execution">compile-time polymorphism</a>. The technique is used by a number of languages, the best-known being <a href="C%2B%2B" title="C++">C++</a>, but also <a href="Curl_programming_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Curl programming language">Curl</a>, <a href="D_programming_language" class="mw-redirect" title="D programming language">D</a>, <a href="Nim_(programming_language)" title="Nim (programming language)">Nim</a>, and <a href="XL_Programming_Language" class="mw-redirect" title="XL Programming Language">XL</a>.

Template metaprogramming was, in a sense, discovered accidentally.<a href="#cite_note-Meyers2005-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a>

Some other languages support similar, if not more powerful, compile-time facilities (such as <a href="Lisp_(programming_language)" title="Lisp (programming language)">Lisp</a> <a href="Macro_(computer_science)#Syntactic_macros" title="Macro (computer science)">macros</a>), but those are outside the scope of this article.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Components_of_template_metaprogramming">Components of template metaprogramming</h2></div>

The use of templates as a metaprogramming technique requires two distinct operations: a template must be defined, and a defined template must be <a href="Instance_(computer_science)" title="Instance (computer science)">instantiated</a>. The generic form of the generated source code is described in the template definition, and when the template is instantiated, the generic form in the template is used to generate a specific set of source code.

Template metaprogramming is <a href="Turing-complete" class="mw-redirect" title="Turing-complete">Turing-complete</a>, meaning that any computation expressible by a computer program can be computed, in some form, by a template metaprogram.<a href="#cite_note-Veldhuizen2003-3">[3]</a>

Templates are different from <a href="Macro_(computer_science)#Programming_macros" title="Macro (computer science)">macros</a>. A macro is a piece of code that executes at compile time and either performs textual manipulation of code to-be compiled (e.g. <a href="C%2B%2B" title="C++">C++</a> macros) or manipulates the <a href="Abstract_syntax_tree" title="Abstract syntax tree">abstract syntax tree</a> being produced by the compiler (e.g. <a href="Rust_(programming_language)" title="Rust (programming language)">Rust</a> or <a href="Lisp_(programming_language)" title="Lisp (programming language)">Lisp</a> macros). Textual macros are notably more independent of the syntax of the language being manipulated, as they merely change the in-memory text of the source code right before compilation.

Template metaprograms have no <a href="Immutable_object" title="Immutable object">mutable variables</a>— that is, no variable can change value once it has been initialized, therefore template metaprogramming can be seen as a form of <a href="Functional_programming" title="Functional programming">functional programming</a>. In fact many template implementations implement flow control only through <a href="Recursion_(computer_science)" title="Recursion (computer science)">recursion</a>, as seen in the example below.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Using_template_metaprogramming">Using template metaprogramming</h3></div>

Though the syntax of template metaprogramming is usually very different from the programming language it is used with, it has practical uses. Some common reasons to use templates are to implement generic programming (avoiding sections of code which are similar except for some minor variations) or to perform automatic compile-time optimization such as doing something once at compile time rather than every time the program is run — for instance, by having the compiler unroll loops to eliminate jumps and loop count decrements whenever the program is executed.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Compile-time_class_generation">Compile-time class generation</h2></div>

What exactly "programming at compile-time" means can be illustrated with an example of a factorial function, which in non-template C++ can be written using recursion as follows:

<div class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-cpp mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr"><pre>unsigned factorial(unsigned n) {

return n == 0 ? 1 : n * factorial(n - 1);

}

// Usage examples:

// factorial(0) would yield 1;

// factorial(4) would yield 24.

</pre></div>

The code above will execute at run time to determine the factorial value of the literals 0 and 4.

By using template metaprogramming and template specialization to provide the ending condition for the recursion, the factorials used in the program—ignoring any factorial not used—can be calculated at compile time by this code:

<div class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-cpp mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr"><pre>template <unsigned N>

struct factorial {

static constexpr unsigned value = N * factorial<N - 1>::value;

};

template <>

struct factorial<0> {

static constexpr unsigned value = 1;

};

// Usage examples:

// factorial<0>::value would yield 1;

// factorial<4>::value would yield 24.

</pre></div>

The code above calculates the factorial value of the literals 0 and 4 at compile time and uses the results as if they were precalculated constants.

To be able to use templates in this manner, the compiler must know the value of its parameters at compile time, which has the natural precondition that factorial<X>::value can only be used if X is known at compile time. In other words, X must be a constant literal or a constant expression.

In <a href="C%2B%2B11" title="C++11">C++11</a> and <a href="C%2B%2B20" title="C++20">C++20</a>, <a href="Constexpr" class="mw-redirect" title="Constexpr">constexpr</a> and consteval were introduced to let the compiler execute code. Using constexpr and consteval, one can use the usual recursive factorial definition with the non-templated syntax.<a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Compile-time_code_optimization">Compile-time code optimization</h2></div>

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</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="Compile-time_function_execution" title="Compile-time function execution">Compile-time function execution</a></div>

The factorial example above is one example of compile-time code optimization in that all factorials used by the program are pre-compiled and injected as numeric constants at compilation, saving both run-time overhead and <a href="Memory_footprint" title="Memory footprint">memory footprint</a>. It is, however, a relatively minor optimization.

As another, more significant, example of compile-time <a href="Loop_unrolling" title="Loop unrolling">loop unrolling</a>, template metaprogramming can be used to create length-n vector classes (where n is known at compile time). The benefit over a more traditional length-n vector is that the loops can be unrolled, resulting in very optimized code. As an example, consider the addition operator. A length-n vector addition might be written as

<div class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-cpp mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr"><pre>template <int length>

Vector<length>& Vector<length>::operator+=(const Vector<length>& rhs)

{

for (int i = 0; i < length; ++i)

value[i] += rhs.value[i];

return *this;

}

</pre></div>

When the compiler instantiates the function template defined above, the following code may be produced:

<div class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-cpp mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr"><pre>template <>

Vector<2>& Vector<2>::operator+=(const Vector<2>& rhs)

{

value[0] += rhs.value[0];

value[1] += rhs.value[1];

return *this;

}

</pre></div>

The compiler's optimizer should be able to unroll the <code>for</code> loop because the template parameter <code>length</code> is a constant at compile time.

However, take care and exercise caution as this may cause code bloat as separate unrolled code will be generated for each 'N'(vector size) you instantiate with.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Static_polymorphism">Static polymorphism</h2></div>

<a href="Type_polymorphism" class="mw-redirect" title="Type polymorphism">Polymorphism</a> is a common standard programming facility where derived objects can be used as instances of their base object but where the derived objects' methods will be invoked, as in this code

<div class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-cpp mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr"><pre>class Base

{

public:

virtual void method() { std::cout << "Base"; }

virtual ~Base() {}

};

class Derived : public Base

{

public:

virtual void method() { std::cout << "Derived"; }

};

int main()

{

Base *pBase = new Derived;

pBase->method(); //outputs "Derived"

delete pBase;

return 0;

}

</pre></div>

where all invocations of <code>virtual</code> methods will be those of the most-derived class. This dynamically polymorphic behaviour is (typically) obtained by the creation of <a href="Vtable" class="mw-redirect" title="Vtable">virtual look-up tables</a> for classes with virtual methods, tables that are traversed at run time to identify the method to be invoked. Thus, run-time polymorphism necessarily entails execution overhead (though on modern architectures the overhead is small).

However, in many cases the polymorphic behaviour needed is invariant and can be determined at compile time. Then the <a href="Curiously_Recurring_Template_Pattern" class="mw-redirect" title="Curiously Recurring Template Pattern">Curiously Recurring Template Pattern</a> (CRTP) can be used to achieve static polymorphism, which is an imitation of polymorphism in programming code but which is resolved at compile time and thus does away with run-time virtual-table lookups. For example:

<div class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-cpp mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr"><pre>template <class Derived>

struct base

{

void interface()

{

// ...

static_cast<Derived*>(this)->implementation();

// ...

}

};

struct derived : base<derived>

{

void implementation()

{

// ...

}

};

</pre></div>

Here the base class template will take advantage of the fact that member function bodies are not instantiated until after their declarations, and it will use members of the derived class within its own member functions, via the use of a <code>static_cast</code>, thus at compilation generating an object composition with polymorphic characteristics. As an example of real-world usage, the CRTP is used in the <a href="Boost_library" class="mw-redirect" title="Boost library">Boost</a> <a href="Iterator" title="Iterator">iterator</a> library.<a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a>

Another similar use is the "<a href="Barton%E2%80%93Nackman_trick" title="Barton–Nackman trick">Barton–Nackman trick</a>", sometimes referred to as "restricted template expansion", where common functionality can be placed in a base class that is used not as a contract but as a necessary component to enforce conformant behaviour while minimising code redundancy.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Static_Table_Generation">Static Table Generation</h2></div>

The benefit of static tables is the replacement of "expensive" calculations with a simple array indexing operation (for examples, see <a href="Lookup_table" title="Lookup table">lookup table</a>). In C++, there exists more than one way to generate a static table at compile time. The following listing shows an example of creating a very simple table by using recursive structs and <a href="Variadic_templates" class="mw-redirect" title="Variadic templates">variadic templates</a>.

The table has a size of ten. Each value is the square of the index.

<div class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-cpp mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr"><pre>#include <iostream>

#include <array>

constexpr int TABLE_SIZE = 10;

/**

* Variadic template for a recursive helper struct.

*/

template<int INDEX = 0, int ...D>

struct Helper : Helper<INDEX + 1, D..., INDEX * INDEX> { };

/**

* Specialization of the template to end the recursion when the table size reaches TABLE_SIZE.

*/

template<int ...D>

struct Helper<TABLE_SIZE, D...> {

static constexpr std::array<int, TABLE_SIZE> table = { D... };

};

constexpr std::array<int, TABLE_SIZE> table = Helper<>::table;

enum {

FOUR = table[2] // compile time use

};

int main() {

for (int i=0; i < TABLE_SIZE; i++) {

std::cout << table[i] << std::endl; // run time use

}

std::cout << "FOUR: " << FOUR << std::endl;

}

</pre></div>

The idea behind this is that the struct Helper recursively inherits from a struct with one more template argument (in this example calculated as INDEX * INDEX) until the specialization of the template ends the recursion at a size of 10 elements. The specialization simply uses the variable argument list as elements for the array.

The compiler will produce code similar to the following (taken from clang called with -Xclang -ast-print -fsyntax-only).

<div class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-cpp mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr"><pre>template <int INDEX = 0, int ...D> struct Helper : Helper<INDEX + 1, D..., INDEX * INDEX> {

};

template<> struct Helper<0, <>> : Helper<0 + 1, 0 * 0> {

};

template<> struct Helper<1, <0>> : Helper<1 + 1, 0, 1 * 1> {

};

template<> struct Helper<2, <0, 1>> : Helper<2 + 1, 0, 1, 2 * 2> {

};

template<> struct Helper<3, <0, 1, 4>> : Helper<3 + 1, 0, 1, 4, 3 * 3> {

};

template<> struct Helper<4, <0, 1, 4, 9>> : Helper<4 + 1, 0, 1, 4, 9, 4 * 4> {

};

template<> struct Helper<5, <0, 1, 4, 9, 16>> : Helper<5 + 1, 0, 1, 4, 9, 16, 5 * 5> {

};

template<> struct Helper<6, <0, 1, 4, 9, 16, 25>> : Helper<6 + 1, 0, 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 6 * 6> {

};

template<> struct Helper<7, <0, 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36>> : Helper<7 + 1, 0, 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 7 * 7> {

};

template<> struct Helper<8, <0, 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49>> : Helper<8 + 1, 0, 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 8 * 8> {

};

template<> struct Helper<9, <0, 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64>> : Helper<9 + 1, 0, 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 9 * 9> {

};

template<> struct Helper<10, <0, 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81>> {

static constexpr std::array<int, TABLE_SIZE> table = {0, 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81};

};

</pre></div>

Since C++17 this can be more readably written as:

#include <iostream>

#include <array>

constexpr int TABLE_SIZE = 10;

constexpr std::array<int, TABLE_SIZE> table = [] { // OR: constexpr auto table

std::array<int, TABLE_SIZE> A = {};

for (unsigned i = 0; i < TABLE_SIZE; i++) {

A[i] = i * i;

}

return A;

}();

enum {

FOUR = table[2] // compile time use

};

int main() {

for (int i=0; i < TABLE_SIZE; i++) {

std::cout << table[i] << std::endl; // run time use

}

std::cout << "FOUR: " << FOUR << std::endl;

}

</pre></div>

To show a more sophisticated example the code in the following listing has been extended to have a helper for value calculation (in preparation for more complicated computations), a table specific offset and a template argument for the type of the table values (e.g. uint8_t, uint16_t, ...).

#include <iostream>

#include <array>

constexpr int TABLE_SIZE = 20;

constexpr int OFFSET = 12;

/**

* Template to calculate a single table entry

*/

template <typename VALUETYPE, VALUETYPE OFFSET, VALUETYPE INDEX>

struct ValueHelper {

static constexpr VALUETYPE value = OFFSET + INDEX * INDEX;

};

/**

* Variadic template for a recursive helper struct.

*/

template<typename VALUETYPE, VALUETYPE OFFSET, int N = 0, VALUETYPE ...D>

struct Helper : Helper<VALUETYPE, OFFSET, N+1, D..., ValueHelper<VALUETYPE, OFFSET, N>::value> { };

/**

* Specialization of the template to end the recursion when the table size reaches TABLE_SIZE.

*/

template<typename VALUETYPE, VALUETYPE OFFSET, VALUETYPE ...D>

struct Helper<VALUETYPE, OFFSET, TABLE_SIZE, D...> {

static constexpr std::array<VALUETYPE, TABLE_SIZE> table = { D... };

};

constexpr std::array<uint16_t, TABLE_SIZE> table = Helper<uint16_t, OFFSET>::table;

int main() {

for (int i = 0; i < TABLE_SIZE; i++) {

std::cout << table[i] << std::endl;

}

}

</pre></div>

Which could be written as follows using C++17:

<div class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-cpp mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr"><pre>#include <iostream>

#include <array>

constexpr int TABLE_SIZE = 20;

constexpr int OFFSET = 12;

template<typename VALUETYPE, int OFFSET>

constexpr std::array<VALUETYPE, TABLE_SIZE> table = [] { // OR: constexpr auto table

std::array<VALUETYPE, TABLE_SIZE> A = {};

for (unsigned i = 0; i < TABLE_SIZE; i++) {

A[i] = OFFSET + i * i;

}

return A;

}();

int main() {

for (int i = 0; i < TABLE_SIZE; i++) {

std::cout << table<uint16_t, OFFSET>[i] << std::endl;

}

}

</pre></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Concepts">Concepts</h2></div>

The C++20 standard brought C++ programmers a new tool for meta template programming, concepts.<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a>

<a href="Concepts_(C%2B%2B)" title="Concepts (C++)">Concepts</a> allow programmers to specify requirements for the type, to make instantiation of template possible. The compiler looks for a template with the concept that has the highest requirements.

Here is an example of the famous <a href="Fizz_buzz" title="Fizz buzz">Fizz buzz</a> problem solved with Template Meta Programming.

<div class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-cpp mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr"><pre>#include <boost/type_index.hpp> // for pretty printing of types

#include <iostream>

#include <tuple>

/**

* Type representation of words to print

*/

struct Fizz {};

struct Buzz {};

struct FizzBuzz {};

template<size_t _N> struct number { constexpr static size_t N = _N; };

/**

* Concepts used to define condition for specializations

*/

template<typename Any> concept has_N = requires{ requires Any::N - Any::N == 0; };

template<typename A> concept fizz_c = has_N<A> && requires{ requires A::N % 3 == 0; };

template<typename A> concept buzz_c = has_N<A> && requires{ requires A::N % 5 == 0;};

template<typename A> concept fizzbuzz_c = fizz_c<A> && buzz_c<A>;

/**

* By specializing `res` structure, with concepts requirements, proper instantiation is performed

*/

template<typename X> struct res;

template<fizzbuzz_c X> struct res<X> { using result = FizzBuzz; };

template<fizz_c X> struct res<X> { using result = Fizz; };

template<buzz_c X> struct res<X> { using result = Buzz; };

template<has_N X> struct res<X> { using result = X; };

/**

* Predeclaration of concatenator

*/

template <size_t cnt, typename... Args>

struct concatenator;

/**

* Recursive way of concatenating next types

*/

template <size_t cnt, typename ... Args>

struct concatenator<cnt, std::tuple<Args...>>

{ using type = typename concatenator<cnt - 1, std::tuple< typename res< number<cnt> >::result, Args... >>::type;};

/**

* Base case

*/

template <typename... Args> struct concatenator<0, std::tuple<Args...>> { using type = std::tuple<Args...>;};

/**

* Final result getter

*/

template<size_t Amount>

using fizz_buzz_full_template = typename concatenator<Amount - 1, std::tuple<typename res<number<Amount>>::result>>::type;

int main()

{

// printing result with boost, so it's clear

std::cout << boost::typeindex::type_id<fizz_buzz_full_template<100>>().pretty_name() << std::endl;

/*

Result:

std::tuple<number<1ul>, number<2ul>, Fizz, number<4ul>, Buzz, Fizz, number<7ul>, number<8ul>, Fizz, Buzz, number<11ul>, Fizz, number<13ul>, number<14ul>, FizzBuzz, number<16ul>, number<17ul>, Fizz, number<19ul>, Buzz, Fizz, number<22ul>, number<23ul>, Fizz, Buzz, number<26ul>, Fizz, number<28ul>, number<29ul>, FizzBuzz, number<31ul>, number<32ul>, Fizz, number<34ul>, Buzz, Fizz, number<37ul>, number<38ul>, Fizz, Buzz, number<41ul>, Fizz, number<43ul>, number<44ul>, FizzBuzz, number<46ul>, number<47ul>, Fizz, number<49ul>, Buzz, Fizz, number<52ul>, number<53ul>, Fizz, Buzz, number<56ul>, Fizz, number<58ul>, number<59ul>, FizzBuzz, number<61ul>, number<62ul>, Fizz, number<64ul>, Buzz, Fizz, number<67ul>, number<68ul>, Fizz, Buzz, number<71ul>, Fizz, number<73ul>, number<74ul>, FizzBuzz, number<76ul>, number<77ul>, Fizz, number<79ul>, Buzz, Fizz, number<82ul>, number<83ul>, Fizz, Buzz, number<86ul>, Fizz, number<88ul>, number<89ul>, FizzBuzz, number<91ul>, number<92ul>, Fizz, number<94ul>, Buzz, Fizz, number<97ul>, number<98ul>, Fizz, Buzz>

*/

}

</pre></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Benefits_and_drawbacks_of_template_metaprogramming">Benefits and drawbacks of template metaprogramming</h2></div>

Compile-time versus execution-time tradeoffs get visible if a great deal of template metaprogramming is used.

<ul><li>Template metaprogramming allows the programmer to focus on architecture and delegate to the compiler the generation of any implementation required by client code. Thus, template metaprogramming can accomplish truly <a href="Generic_programming" title="Generic programming">generic code</a>, facilitating code minimization and better maintainability.</li>

<li>With respect to C++ prior to version C++11, the syntax and idioms of template metaprogramming were esoteric compared to conventional C++ programming, and template metaprograms could be very difficult to understand.<a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a> But from C++11 onward the syntax for value computation metaprogramming becomes more and more akin to "normal" C++, with less and less readability penalty.</li></ul>

<ul><li><a href="Substitution_failure_is_not_an_error" title="Substitution failure is not an error">Substitution failure is not an error</a> (SFINAE)</li>

<li><a href="Metaprogramming" title="Metaprogramming">Metaprogramming</a></li>

<li><a href="Preprocessor" title="Preprocessor">Preprocessor</a></li>

<li><a href="Parametric_polymorphism" title="Parametric polymorphism">Parametric polymorphism</a></li>

<li><a href="Expression_templates" title="Expression templates">Expression templates</a></li>

<li><a href="Variadic_template" title="Variadic template">Variadic template</a></li>

<li><a href="Compile-time_function_execution" title="Compile-time function execution">Compile-time function execution</a></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

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</style><cite id="CITEREFScott_Meyers2005" class="citation book cs1">Scott Meyers (12 May 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Qx5oyB49poYC&q=%22Template+metaprogramming%22">Effective C++: 55 Specific Ways to Improve Your Programs and Designs</a>. Pearson Education. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-13-270206-5</bdi>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> See <a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/C%2B%2B_Programming/Templates/Template_Meta-Programming#History_of_TMP" class="extiw external" title="wikibooks:C++ Programming/Templates/Template Meta-Programming">History of TMP</a> on Wikibooks

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Veldhuizen2003-3"><a href="#cite_ref-Veldhuizen2003_3-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFVeldhuizen2003" class="citation citeseerx cs1">Veldhuizen, Todd L. (2003). "C++ Templates are Turing Complete". <a href="CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.14.3670">10.1.1.14.3670</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-4"><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cprogramming.com/c++11/c++11-compile-time-processing-with-constexpr.html">"Constexpr - Generalized Constant Expressions in C++11 - Cprogramming.com"</a>. www.cprogramming.com.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-5"><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.boost.org/libs/iterator/doc/iterator_facade.html">"Iterator Facade - 1.79.0"</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-6"><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://en.cppreference.com/w/cpp/language/constraints">"Constraints and concepts (since C++20) - cppreference.com"</a>. en.cppreference.com.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-7"><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a> <cite id="Czarnecki,_O’Donnell,_Striegnitz,_Taha_-_DSL_implementation_in_metaocaml,_template_haskell,_and_C++" class="citation web cs1">Czarnecki, K.; O'Donnell, J.; Striegnitz, J.; Taha, Walid Mohamed (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://camlunity.ru/swap/Library/Computer%20Science/Metaprogramming/Domain-Specific%20Languages/DSL%20Implementation%20in%20MetaOCaml,%20Template%20Haskell%20and%20C++.pdf">"DSL implementation in metaocaml, template haskell, and C++"</a> (PDF). University of Waterloo, University of Glasgow, Research Centre Julich, Rice University. <q>C++ Template Metaprogramming suffers from a number of limitations, including portability problems due to compiler limitations (although this has significantly improved in the last few years), lack of debugging support or IO during template instantiation, long compilation times, long and incomprehensible errors, poor readability of the code, and poor error reporting.</q></cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-8"><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a> <cite id="Sheard,_S.P.Jones_-_Template_Meta-programming_for_Haskell" class="citation web cs1">Sheard, Tim; <a href="Simon_Peyton_Jones" title="Simon Peyton Jones">Jones, Simon Peyton</a> (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://research.microsoft.com/en-us/um/people/simonpj/papers/meta-haskell/meta-haskell.pdf">"Template Meta-programming for Haskell"</a> (PDF). ACM 1-58113-415-0/01/0009. <q>Robinson's provocative paper identifies C++ templates as a major, albeit accidental, success of the C++ language design. Despite the extremely baroque nature of template meta-programming, templates are used in fascinating ways that extend beyond the wildest dreams of the language designers. Perhaps surprisingly, in view of the fact that templates are functional programs, functional programmers have been slow to capitalize on C++'s success</q></cite>

</li>

</ol></div></div>

<ul><li><cite id="CITEREFEisenecker2000" class="citation book cs1">Eisenecker, Ulrich W. (2000). Generative Programming: Methods, Tools, and Applications. Addison-Wesley. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-201-30977-7</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFAlexandrescu2003" class="citation book cs1"><a href="Andrei_Alexandrescu" title="Andrei Alexandrescu">Alexandrescu, Andrei</a> (2003). Modern C++ Design: Generic Programming and Design Patterns Applied. Addison-Wesley. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>3-8266-1347-3</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFAbrahamsGurtovoy2005" class="citation book cs1"><a href="David_Abrahams_(computer_programmer)" title="David Abrahams (computer programmer)">Abrahams, David</a>; Gurtovoy, Aleksey (January 2005). C++ Template Metaprogramming: Concepts, Tools, and Techniques from Boost and Beyond. Addison-Wesley. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-321-22725-5</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFVandevoordeJosuttis2003" class="citation book cs1">Vandevoorde, David; Josuttis, Nicolai M. (2003). C++ Templates: The Complete Guide. Addison-Wesley. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-201-73484-2</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFClavel2000" class="citation book cs1">Clavel, Manuel (2000-10-16). Reflection in Rewriting Logic: Metalogical Foundations and Metaprogramming Applications. Cambridge University Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>1-57586-238-7</bdi>.</cite></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div>

<ul><li><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.boost.org/libs/mpl/doc/">"The Boost Metaprogramming Library (Boost MPL)"</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.boost.org/libs/spirit/">"The Spirit Library"</a>.</cite> (built using template-metaprogramming)</li>

<li><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.boost.org/doc/libs/1_57_0/doc/html/lambda.html">"The Boost Lambda library"</a>.</cite> (use STL algorithms easily)</li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFVeldhuizen1995" class="citation journal cs1">Veldhuizen, Todd (May 1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090304154029/http://ubiety.uwaterloo.ca/~tveldhui/papers/Template-Metaprograms/meta-art.html">"Using C++ template metaprograms"</a>. C++ Report. 7 (4): 36–43. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ubiety.uwaterloo.ca/~tveldhui/papers/Template-Metaprograms/meta-art.html">the original</a> on 2009-03-04.</cite></li>

<li><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wiki.haskell.org/Template_Haskell">"Template Haskell"</a>.</cite> (type-safe metaprogramming in Haskell)</li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFBright" class="citation web cs1"><a href="Walter_Bright" title="Walter Bright">Bright, Walter</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.digitalmars.com/d/templates-revisited.html">"Templates Revisited"</a>.</cite> (template metaprogramming in the <a href="D_programming_language" class="mw-redirect" title="D programming language">D programming language</a>)</li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFKoskinen" class="citation web cs1"><a href="Johannes_Koskinen" title="Johannes Koskinen">Koskinen, Johannes</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://staff.ustc.edu.cn/~xyfeng/teaching/FOPL/lectureNotes/MetaprogrammingCpp.pdf">"Metaprogramming in C++"</a> (PDF).</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFAttardiCisternino" class="citation web cs1">Attardi, Giuseppe; Cisternino, Antonio. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://lcgapp.cern.ch/project/architecture/ReflectionPaper.pdf">"Reflection support by means of template metaprogramming"</a> (PDF).</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFBurtonGriswoldMcCullochHuber2002" class="citation citeseerx cs1">Burton, Michael C.; Griswold, William G.; McCulloch, Andrew D.; Huber, Gary A. (2002). "Static data structures". <a href="CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.14.5881">10.1.1.14.5881</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFAmjad2007" class="citation web cs1">Amjad, Zeeshan (13 August 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.codeproject.com/Articles/19989/Template-Meta-Programming-and-Number-Theory">"Template Meta Programming and Number Theory"</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFAmjad2007" class="citation web cs1">Amjad, Zeeshan (24 August 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.codeproject.com/Articles/20180/Template-Meta-Programming-and-Number-Theory-Part">"Template Meta Programming and Number Theory: Part 2"</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.intelib.org/intro.html">"A library for LISP-style programming in C++"</a>.</cite></li></ul>

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</style><div id="Programming_paradigms_(Comparison_by_language)368" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Programming_paradigm" title="Programming paradigm">Programming paradigms</a> (<a href="Comparison_of_multi-paradigm_programming_languages" title="Comparison of multi-paradigm programming languages">Comparison by language</a>)</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Imperative_programming" title="Imperative programming">Imperative</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Structured_programming" title="Structured programming">Structured</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Jackson_structured_programming" title="Jackson structured programming">Jackson structures</a></li>

<li><a href="Block_(programming)" title="Block (programming)">Block-structured</a></li>

<li><a href="Modular_programming" title="Modular programming">Modular</a></li>

<li><a href="Non-structured_programming" title="Non-structured programming">Non-structured</a></li>

<li><a href="Procedural_programming" title="Procedural programming">Procedural</a></li>

<li><a href="Programming_in_the_large_and_programming_in_the_small" title="Programming in the large and programming in the small">Programming in the large and in the small</a></li>

<li><a href="Design_by_contract" title="Design by contract">Design by contract</a></li>

<li><a href="Invariant-based_programming" title="Invariant-based programming">Invariant-based</a></li>

<li><a href="Nested_function" title="Nested function">Nested function</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Object-oriented_programming" title="Object-oriented programming">Object-oriented</a> (<a href="Comparison_of_programming_languages_(object-oriented_programming)" title="Comparison of programming languages (object-oriented programming)">comparison</a>, <a href="List_of_object-oriented_programming_languages" title="List of object-oriented programming languages">list</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Class-based_programming" title="Class-based programming">Class-based</a>, <a href="Prototype-based_programming" title="Prototype-based programming">Prototype-based</a>, <a href="Object-based_language" title="Object-based language">Object-based</a></li>

<li><a href="Agent-oriented_programming" title="Agent-oriented programming">Agent</a></li>

<li><a href="Immutable_object" title="Immutable object">Immutable object</a></li>

<li><a href="Persistent_programming_language" title="Persistent programming language">Persistent</a></li>

<li><a href="Uniform_function_call_syntax" title="Uniform function call syntax">Uniform function call syntax</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Declarative_programming" title="Declarative programming">Declarative</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Functional_programming" title="Functional programming">Functional</a> (<a href="Comparison_of_functional_programming_languages" title="Comparison of functional programming languages">comparison</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Recursion_(computer_science)" title="Recursion (computer science)">Recursive</a></li>

<li><a href="Anonymous_function" title="Anonymous function">Anonymous function</a> (<a href="Partial_application" title="Partial application">Partial application</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Higher-order_programming" title="Higher-order programming">Higher-order</a></li>

<li><a href="Purely_functional_programming" title="Purely functional programming">Purely functional</a></li>

<li><a href="Total_functional_programming" title="Total functional programming">Total</a></li>

<li><a href="Strict_programming_language" title="Strict programming language">Strict</a></li>

<li><a href="Generalized_algebraic_data_type" title="Generalized algebraic data type">GADTs</a></li>

<li><a href="Dependent_type" title="Dependent type">Dependent types</a></li>

<li><a href="Functional_logic_programming" title="Functional logic programming">Functional logic</a></li>

<li><a href="Tacit_programming" title="Tacit programming">Point-free style</a></li>

<li><a href="Expression-oriented_programming_language" title="Expression-oriented programming language">Expression-oriented</a></li>

<li><a href="Applicative_programming_language" title="Applicative programming language">Applicative</a>, <a href="Concatenative_programming_language" title="Concatenative programming language">Concatenative</a></li>

<li><a href="Function-level_programming" title="Function-level programming">Function-level</a>, <a href="Value-level_programming" title="Value-level programming">Value-level</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Dataflow_programming" title="Dataflow programming">Dataflow</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Flow-based_programming" title="Flow-based programming">Flow-based</a></li>

<li><a href="Reactive_programming" title="Reactive programming">Reactive</a> (<a href="Functional_reactive_programming" title="Functional reactive programming">Functional reactive</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Signal_programming" class="mw-redirect" title="Signal programming">Signals</a></li>

<li><a href="Stream_processing" title="Stream processing">Streams</a></li>

<li><a href="Synchronous_programming_language" title="Synchronous programming language">Synchronous</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Logic_programming" title="Logic programming">Logic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Abductive_logic_programming" title="Abductive logic programming">Abductive logic</a></li>

<li><a href="Answer_set_programming" title="Answer set programming">Answer set</a></li>

<li><a href="Constraint_programming" title="Constraint programming">Constraint</a> (<a href="Constraint_logic_programming" title="Constraint logic programming">Constraint logic</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Inductive_logic_programming" title="Inductive logic programming">Inductive logic</a></li>

<li><a href="Nondeterministic_programming" title="Nondeterministic programming">Nondeterministic</a></li>

<li><a href="Ontology_language" title="Ontology language">Ontology</a></li>

<li><a href="Probabilistic_logic_programming" title="Probabilistic logic programming">Probabilistic logic</a></li>

<li><a href="Query_language" title="Query language">Query</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Domain-specific_language" title="Domain-specific language">DSL</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Algebraic_modeling_language" title="Algebraic modeling language">Algebraic modeling</a></li>

<li><a href="Array_programming" title="Array programming">Array</a></li>

<li><a href="Automata-based_programming" title="Automata-based programming">Automata-based</a> (<a href="Action_language" title="Action language">Action</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Command_language" title="Command language">Command</a> (<a href="Spacecraft_command_language" title="Spacecraft command language">Spacecraft</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Differentiable_programming" title="Differentiable programming">Differentiable</a></li>

<li><a href="Grammar-oriented_programming" title="Grammar-oriented programming">Grammar-oriented</a></li>

<li><a href="Interface_description_language" title="Interface description language">Interface description</a></li>

<li><a href="Language-oriented_programming" title="Language-oriented programming">Language-oriented</a></li>

<li><a href="List_comprehension" title="List comprehension">List comprehension</a></li>

<li><a href="Modeling_language" title="Modeling language">Modeling</a></li>

<li><a href="Natural-language_programming" class="mw-redirect" title="Natural-language programming">Natural language</a></li>

<li><a href="Non-English-based_programming_languages" title="Non-English-based programming languages">Non-English-based</a></li>

<li><a href="Page_description_language" title="Page description language">Page description</a></li>

<li><a href="Pipeline_(software)" title="Pipeline (software)">Pipes</a> and <a href="Filter_(software)" title="Filter (software)">filters</a></li>

<li><a href="Probabilistic_programming" title="Probabilistic programming">Probabilistic</a></li>

<li><a href="Quantum_programming" title="Quantum programming">Quantum</a></li>

<li><a href="Scientific_programming_language" title="Scientific programming language">Scientific</a></li>

<li><a href="Scripting_language" title="Scripting language">Scripting</a></li>

<li><a href="Set_theoretic_programming" title="Set theoretic programming">Set-theoretic</a></li>

<li><a href="Simulation_language" title="Simulation language">Simulation</a></li>

<li><a href="Stack-oriented_programming" title="Stack-oriented programming">Stack-based</a></li>

<li><a href="System_programming_language" title="System programming language">System</a></li>

<li><a href="Tactile_programming_language" title="Tactile programming language">Tactile</a></li>

<li><a href="Template_processor" title="Template processor">Templating</a></li>

<li><a href="Transformation_language" title="Transformation language">Transformation</a> (<a href="Graph_rewriting" title="Graph rewriting">Graph rewriting</a>, <a href="Production_system_(computer_science)" title="Production system (computer science)">Production</a>, <a href="Pattern_matching" title="Pattern matching">Pattern</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Visual_programming_language" title="Visual programming language">Visual</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Concurrent_computing" title="Concurrent computing">Concurrent</a>, <a href="Distributed_computing" title="Distributed computing">distributed</a>, <a href="Parallel_computing" title="Parallel computing">parallel</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Actor_model" title="Actor model">Actor-based</a></li>

<li><a href="Automatic_mutual_exclusion" title="Automatic mutual exclusion">Automatic mutual exclusion</a></li>

<li><a href="Choreographic_programming" title="Choreographic programming">Choreographic programming</a></li>

<li><a href="Concurrent_logic_programming" title="Concurrent logic programming">Concurrent logic</a> (<a href="Concurrent_constraint_logic_programming" title="Concurrent constraint logic programming">Concurrent constraint logic</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Concurrent_object-oriented_programming" title="Concurrent object-oriented programming">Concurrent OO</a></li>

<li><a href="Macroprogramming" title="Macroprogramming">Macroprogramming</a></li>

<li><a href="Multitier_programming" title="Multitier programming">Multitier programming</a></li>

<li><a href="Organic_computing" title="Organic computing">Organic computing</a></li>

<li><a href="Parallel_programming_model" title="Parallel programming model">Parallel programming models</a></li>

<li><a href="Partitioned_global_address_space" title="Partitioned global address space">Partitioned global address space</a></li>

<li><a href="Process-oriented_programming" title="Process-oriented programming">Process-oriented</a></li>

<li><a href="Relativistic_programming" title="Relativistic programming">Relativistic programming</a></li>

<li><a href="Service-oriented_programming" title="Service-oriented programming">Service-oriented</a></li>

<li><a href="Structured_concurrency" title="Structured concurrency">Structured concurrency</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Metaprogramming" title="Metaprogramming">Metaprogramming</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Attribute-oriented_programming" title="Attribute-oriented programming">Attribute-oriented</a></li>

<li><a href="Automatic_programming" title="Automatic programming">Automatic</a> (<a href="Inductive_programming" title="Inductive programming">Inductive</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Dynamic_programming_language" title="Dynamic programming language">Dynamic</a></li>

<li><a href="Extensible_programming" title="Extensible programming">Extensible</a></li>

<li><a href="Generic_programming" title="Generic programming">Generic</a></li>

<li><a href="Homoiconicity" title="Homoiconicity">Homoiconicity</a></li>

<li><a href="Interactive_programming" title="Interactive programming">Interactive</a></li>

<li><a href="Macro_(computer_science)" title="Macro (computer science)">Macro</a> (<a href="Hygienic_macro" title="Hygienic macro">Hygienic</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Metalinguistic_abstraction" title="Metalinguistic abstraction">Metalinguistic abstraction</a></li>

<li><a href="Multi-stage_programming" title="Multi-stage programming">Multi-stage</a></li>

<li><a href="Program_synthesis" title="Program synthesis">Program synthesis</a> (<a href="Bayesian_program_synthesis" title="Bayesian program synthesis">Bayesian</a>, <a href="Inferential_programming" title="Inferential programming">Inferential</a>, <a href="Programming_by_demonstration" title="Programming by demonstration">by demonstration</a>, <a href="Programming_by_example" title="Programming by example">by example</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Reflective_programming" title="Reflective programming">Reflective</a></li>

<li><a href="Self-modifying_code" title="Self-modifying code">Self-modifying code</a></li>

<li><a href="Symbolic_programming" title="Symbolic programming">Symbolic</a></li>

</ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Separation_of_concerns" title="Separation of concerns">Separation of concerns</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Aspect-oriented_programming" title="Aspect-oriented programming">Aspects</a></li>

<li><a href="Component-based_software_engineering" title="Component-based software engineering">Components</a></li>

<li><a href="Data-driven_programming" title="Data-driven programming">Data-driven</a></li>

<li><a href="Data-oriented_design" title="Data-oriented design">Data-oriented</a></li>

<li><a href="Event-driven_programming" title="Event-driven programming">Event-driven</a></li>

<li><a href="Feature-oriented_programming" title="Feature-oriented programming">Features</a></li>

<li><a href="Literate_programming" title="Literate programming">Literate</a></li>

<li><a href="Role-oriented_programming" title="Role-oriented programming">Roles</a></li>

<li><a href="Subject-oriented_programming" title="Subject-oriented programming">Subjects</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div><div><div class="zim-footer">

This article is issued from <a class="external text" title="Last edited on 2024-11-29" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/?title=Template_metaprogramming&oldid=1260198749">Wikipedia</a>. The text is available under <a class="external text" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en">Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 4.0</a> unless otherwise noted. Additional terms may apply for the media files.

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